1. SUMMARY OF THE CONTEXT AND OVERALL OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT 

The ELECTRUST project's research is crucial for today's societies amidst the global adoption of various voting technologies aimed at strengthening and scaling up democracy. Despite this, there is often a lack of awareness about the risks associated with voting technologies. Understanding trust and distrust patterns in Internet voting not only helps identify factors influencing citizen sentiment but also enables public administrations to develop strategies for building trust and managing distrust. This insight also aids potential implementers in making informed decisions based on the underlying trust and distrust dynamics. Furthermore, it sheds light on paradoxical situations where certain factors inspire trust in some groups while evoking distrust in others, or where certain factors elicit both trust and distrust simultaneously.

The ELECTRUST project delved into Internet voting adoption and its impact on democracy. Trust is crucial for both decision-makers and citizens in embracing Internet voting. Traditional research often overlooked distrust, treating it merely as the absence of trust. ELECTRUST reframed trust and distrust as independent yet interconnected concepts. Building on Luhmann's and Lewicki's work, it explored the roles of trust and distrust in data-driven technologies like Internet voting. The project developed a novel research methodology, with initial findings soon to be shared with the scientific community.

ELECTRUST explores cases of Internet voting and electronic voting, aiming to uncover factors shaping trust and distrust. Beyond advancing scientific knowledge, the project offers practical insights. It helps identify: 1) key arguments influencing trust and distrust in Internet voting, enriching existing understanding; 2) ways to improve the electoral technologies’ adoption processes by understanding their impact on trust and distrust; and 3) strategies for governments to enhance trust or manage distrust more effectively. Additionally, it sets the stage for future research in two areas: studying the influence of trust and distrust on other electoral technologies and examining their effects on public administrations.

2. WORK PERFORMED AND RESULTS ACHIEVED

ELECTRUST employed a two-step methodology for its research. Firstly, it established a solid theoretical foundation concerning trust, distrust, and their integration into the context of Internet voting and data-driven technologies. Secondly, it conducted case studies in countries where Internet voting or electronic voting has been utilized to understand trust and distrust formation. This approach reconceptualized trust and distrust as related yet distinct concepts, identifying various mechanisms for their construction.

The analysis of the case studies supported the hypothesis that trust and distrust exhibit different patterns in relation to Internet voting, suggesting avenues for further research in other technologies. Trust is nurtured through positive user experiences, convenience, and existing institutional trust, while distrust arises from technical and political concerns. Additionally, several intriguing observations emerged:

• • • elements may simultaneously evoke trust and distrust;
    • failures in trusted elements can breed distrust;
    • trust and distrust factors extend beyond election days, impacting different phases of the electoral cycle;
    • distrust strategies may ironically encourage technology adoption; and
    • various groups aiming to enhance democracy quality may employ contrasting approaches to building trust and distrust.

These findings have been presented at 7 international research conferences, 2 conferences with practitioners, a workshop with experts, 4 university seminars, and 4 lectures in 3 different continents. Besides that, they have been published in 2 journal papers, 3 conference proceedings, and 2 edited books. The results have been summarized in the CORDIS result pack, invited to CORDIScovery podcast, and the researcher was awarded the title of MSCA Fellow of the Week.

The work conducted in the ELECTRUST project helped the researcher earn a Habilitation degree in Political and Administrative Sciences and an Associate Professorship position. It also increased his visibility in the field, being currently the General Chair at E-Vote-ID Conference, President of the Thematic Group on Digital Sociology at the International Sociological Association, Program Chair at the International Digital Government Research Conferences, and Track Chair at EGOV and HICSS conferences.

3. PROGRESS BEYOND THE STATE OF THE ART AND POTENTIAL IMPACT

The project helped define trust, distrust, and their interrelations, and apply this theoretical construction to the use of Internet voting. The case study conducted allowed detecting the differential patterns of functioning of trust and distrust and will impact the design of separate but related strategies to deal with them. The project has gathered a wealth of data, ready for further analysis. Leveraging this data will be one of its key activities moving forward. Consequently, the project will continue along the following streams: 

• • • Publications: Three publications are already at an advanced stage, some have already been submitted, and the other two are currently under development. Further publications will emerge from the ongoing data analysis.
    • Dissemination: The project's topic and results are attracting the attention of both research and administrative authorities. CORDIS has already featured the project's results in its latest Results Pack, and this momentum will continue with the CORDIScovery podcast. This dissemination effort will culminate in the publication of a white book on trust and distrust in electoral technologies, which will be proposed once the exploitation of results nears completion in 2025.
    • Spin-Off Projects: The project lays the groundwork for spin-off projects to advance this research, and the visibility gained serves as a valuable asset for attracting partners and validating the strength of my academic portfolio. Two spin-off projects are in the pipeline, one focusing on the development of internet voting in Catalonia (already funded), and a second on Digital Democracy. Applying for an ERC Consolidator grant in 2025 is in the mid-term plan.

Regarding the impact of my research, a significant indicator is the adoption of the distinction between Trust and Distrust by experts in the field, as evidenced by their integration of this concept in specialized conferences. This indicates that the theoretical foundations of this idea resonate with those who have done research in the field. Similarly, my research findings suggest that public administrations should actively consider distrust in their management policies and develop strategies for fostering trust in the technologies they provide and managing distrust when it arises. The research highlights clear indications that trust and distrust follow distinct trajectories and should be addressed accordingly. Within this specific realm of research, ELECTRUST yields relevant outcomes that contribute to a better understanding of the dynamics of Internet voting acceptance and establish solid foundations for those seeking to introduce it. The project's objective is not to advocate for or against the use of Internet voting but to provide insights into potential steps and outcomes for those considering its implementation.

4. PUBLICATIONS

The project produced journal articles, conference papers, book chapters, and edited books. 

4.1. Peer-reviewed journal articles

• • • Duenas-Cid, D., Calzati, S. (2023). Dis/Trust and data driven Technologies, Internet Policy Review, 12(4).
    • Bravo, R., Brugué, J. & Duenas-Cid, D. (2022). Technology and Democracy: the who and how in decision-making. The cases of Estonia and Catalonia, El Profesional de la información, 33(1).

4.2. Peer-reviewed conference papers

• • • Duenas-Cid, D., Janowski, T., Krimmer, R. (2022). Trust and Distrust in e-Democracy, DGO 2022 Proceedings.
    • Duenas-Cid, D. (2022). A theoretical framework for understanding trust and distrust in internet voting, E-Vote-ID 2022 Proceedings.
    • Erb, Y., Duenas-Cid, D., Volkamer, M. (2024). Identifying factors studied for voter trust in e-Voting, E-Vote-ID 2023 Proceedings (in press).
    • Duenas-Cid, D., Loeber, L., Martin-Rozumiłowicz, B., Macias, R. (2024). Trust frameworks in application to technology in elections, E-Vote-ID 2023 Proceedings (in press).

4.3. Peer-reviewed book chapters

• • • Rzycki, B, Duenas-Cid, D., Przegalinska, A. (2024). Application of Artificial Intelligence by Poland’s Public Administration, Research Handbook on Public Management and Artificial Intelligence, 118-136.

4.4. Edited books

• • • Krimmer, R., et al. (2022). Electronic Voting: 7th International Joint Conference, E-Vote-ID 2022, Bregenz, Austria, October 4–7, 2022, Proceedings. Springer: Cham.
    • Krimmer, R., et al. (2022). E-Vote-ID 2022 Proceedings: Seventh International Joint Conference on Electronic Voting, Bregenz, Austria, 4-7 October 2022. University of Tartu Press: Tartu.
    • Volkamer, M., et al. (2023). Electronic Voting: 8th International Joint Conference, E-Vote-ID 2023, Luxembourg City, Luxembourg, October 3–6, 2023, Proceedings. Springer: Cham.
    • Volkamer, M., et al. (in press). E-Vote-ID 2023 Proceedings: Eighth International Joint Conference on Electronic Voting, Bregenz, Austria, 4-7 October 2022. Gesselschaft für Informatik: Berlin.
    • Duenas-Cid, D., et al. (2023). DGO’23: Proceedings of the 24th Annual International Conference on Digital Government Research. Association for Computing Machinery: New York.

5. COMMUNICATIONS

The project results were communicated at academic conferences, practitioner conferences, research seminars, lectures, and public speeches.

5.1. Academic Conferences

• • • E-Vote-ID 2022, Bregenz, 4-7 October 2022.
    • E-Vote-ID 2023, Luxembourg, 3-6 October 2023.
    • The Annual International Conference on Digital Government Research (DG.O) 2022, Seoul (Online), 15-17 June 2022.
    • The Annual International Conference on Digital Government Research (DG.O) 2023, Gdansk, 11-14 July 2023.
    • International Research Conference Europe of the XXI Century 2022, Słubice (online), 23-24 June, 2022.
    • International Research Conference Europe of the XXI Century 2023, Słubice, 2-3 February, 2023.
    • XX ISA World Congress of Sociology 2023, Melbourne, 25 June – 1 July 2023.
    • Conference on Trust and Reliability of Internet Voting at the Estonian Academy of Sciences 2023, Tallinn, 17 October 2023.

5.2. Practitioner conferences

• • • Global Conference: Peaceful and Inclusive Elections in a Digital Age (UNDP), Brussels, 8-10 November 2023.
    • International Conference on Constitutional Reform and Electoral System (Kazakhstan's Central Electoral Committee), Astana, 7-8 December 2023.

5.3. Research Seminars

• • • Gdańsk University of Technology, March 2022
    • Gdańsk University of Technology, November 2023
    • University for Continuing Education Krems, June 2022
    • Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, May 2022
    • University of New South Wales, August 2023
    • The Annual International Conference on Digital Government Research (DG.O) 2022, Seoul (Online), June 2022.
    • Digital Government Society – Student Support Committee, April 2023

5.4. Lectures

• • • Ritsumeikan University, September 2023
    • University of Granada, June 2023
    • Escuela Centroamericana de Gobierno y Democracia, December 2022
    • Escuela Centroamericana de Gobierno y Democracia, November 2023
    • Indian Sociological Society, July 2023

5.5. Public speeches

• • • Is Internet voting possible? How do people vote and what does it involve? Researchers’ Night activity programme, Tarragona, 27 September 2022.