Valorization of Bioplastic Waste: A Review on Effective Recycling Routes for the Most Widely Used Biopolymers
Abstract
Plastics-based materials have a high carbon footprint, and their disposal is a considerable problem for the environment. Biodegradable bioplastics represent an alternative on which most countries have focused their attention to replace of conventional plastics in various sectors, among which food packaging is the most significant one. The evaluation of the optimal end-of-life process for bioplastic waste is of great importance for their sustainable use. In this review, the advantages and limits of different waste management routes-biodegradation, mechanical recycling and thermal degradation processes-are presented for the most common categories of biopolymers on the market, including starch-based bioplastics, PLA and PBAT. The analysis outlines that starch-based bioplastics, unless blended with other biopolymers, exhibit good biodegradation rates and are suitable for disposal by composting, while PLA and PBAT are incompatible with this process and require alternative strategies. The thermal degradation process is very promising for chemical recycling, enabling building blocks and the recovery of valuable chemicals from bioplastic waste, according to the principles of a sustainable and circular economy. Nevertheless, only a few articles have focused on this recycling process, highlighting the need for research to fully exploit the potentiality of this waste management route.
Citations
Author (1)
Cite as
Full text
- Publication version
- Accepted or Published Version
- License
- open in new tab
Keywords
Details
- Category:
- Magazine publication
- Type:
- Magazine publication
- Published in:
-
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MOLECULAR SCIENCES
no. 24,
edition 7696,
ISSN: 1661-6596 - Publication year:
- 2023
- DOI:
- Digital Object Identifier (open in new tab) https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24097696
- Bibliography: test
-
- European Commission. Green Paper-A 2030 Framework for Climate and Energy Policies. COM(2013) 169 Final. 2013, pp. 1-16. Available online: http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/strategies/2030/documentation_en.htm (accessed on 3 March 2013). open in new tab
- European Commission. A Clean Planet for All: A European Strategic Long-Term Vision for a Prosperous, Modern, Competitive and Climate Neutral Economy; European Commission: Brussels, Belgium, 2018. open in new tab
- European Parliament; Council of The European Union. Directive 2008/122/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council. In Fundamental Texts on European Private Law; Bloomsbury Publishing: London, UK, 2008; p. 25. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- European Commission. EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030; European Commission: Brussels, Belgium, 2020. open in new tab
- European Commission. The European Green Deal. 2019. Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/resource.html?uri=cellar: b828d165-1c22-11ea-8c1f-01aa75ed71a1.0002.02/DOC_1&format=PDF (accessed on 11 December 2019). open in new tab
- United Nations General Assembly. Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development; United Nations General Assembly: New York, NY, USA, 2015. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Fredi, G.; Dorigato, A. Recycling of bioplastic waste: A review. Adv. Ind. Eng. Polym. Res. 2021, 4, 159-177. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Reshmy, R.; Paulose, T.; Philip, E.; Thomas, D.; Madhavan, A.; Sirohi, R.; Binod, P.; Awasthi, M.K.; Pandey, A.; Sindhu, R. Updates on high value products from cellulosic biorefinery. Fuel 2022, 308, 122056. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Plastics Europe. Plastics-The Facts 2021: An Analysis of European Plastics Production, Demand and Waste Data. Brussels, Belgium. 2021. Available online: https://plasticseurope.org/knowledge-hub/plastics-the-facts-2021/ (accessed on 1 March 2021). open in new tab
- Letcher, T.M. (Ed.) Plastic Waste and Recycling: Environmental Impact, Societal Issues, Prevention, and Solutions; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2020. open in new tab
- Van Roijen, E.C.; Miller, S.A. A review of bioplastics at end-of-life: Linking experimental biodegradation studies and life cycle impact assessments. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2022, 181, 106236. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Solarte-Toro, J.C.; Laghezza, M.; Fiore, S.; Berruti, F.; Moustakas, K.; Alzate, C.A.C. Review of the impact of socio-economic conditions on the development and implementation of biorefineries. Fuel 2022, 328, 125169. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Kee, S.H.; Ganeson, K.; Rashid, N.F.M.; Yatim, A.F.M.; Vigneswari, S.; Amirul, A.-A.A.; Ramakrishna, S.; Bhubalan, K. A review on biorefining of palm oil and sugar cane agro-industrial residues by bacteria into commercially viable bioplastics and biosurfactants. Fuel 2022, 321, 124039. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- European Bioplastics. Available online: https://www.european-bioplastics.org/ (accessed on 15 January 2022).
- European Commission. A European Strategy for Plastics in a Circular Economy; European Commission: Brussels, Belgium, 2018. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- The European Parlament and The European Council. Directive (Eu) 2019/904: On the Reduction of the Impact of Certain Plastic Products on the Environment. 2019. Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX: 32019L0904&from=EN (accessed on 5 June 2019). open in new tab
- Ansink, E.; Wijk, L.; Zuidmeer, F. No clue about bioplastics. Ecol. Econ. 2022, 191, 107245. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Friedrich, D. What makes bioplastics innovative for fashion retailers? An in-depth analysis according to the Triple Bottom Line Principle. J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 316, 128257. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 7696 28 of 33 open in new tab
- Ruggero, F.; Onderwater, R.C.A.; Carretti, E.; Roosa, S.; Benali, S.; Raquez, J.-M.; Gori, R.; Lubello, C.; Wattiez, R. Degradation of Film and Rigid Bioplastics During the Thermophilic Phase and the Maturation Phase of Simulated Composting. J. Polym. Environ. 2021, 29, 3015-3028. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Cucina, M.; de Nisi, P.; Tambone, F.; Adani, F. The role of waste management in reducing bioplastics' leakage into the environment: A review. Bioresour. Technol. 2021, 337, 125459. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- García-Depraect, O.; Lebrero, R.; Rodriguez-Vega, S.; Bordel, S.; Santos-Beneit, F.; Martínez-Mendoza, L.J.; Börner, R.A.; Börner, T.; Muñoz, R. Biodegradation of bioplastics under aerobic and anaerobic aqueous conditions: Kinetics, carbon fate and particle size effect. Bioresour. Technol. 2022, 344, 126265. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Maga, D.; Hiebel, M.; Thonemann, N. Life cycle assessment of recycling options for polylactic acid. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2019, 149, 86-96. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Lamberti, F.M.; Román-Ramírez, L.A.; Wood, J. Recycling of Bioplastics: Routes and Benefits. J. Polym. Environ. 2020, 28, 2551-2571. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Dogu, O.; Pelucchi, M.; Van de Vijver, R.; Van Steenberge, P.H.; D'Hooge, D.R.; Cuoci, A.; Mehl, M.; Frassoldati, A.; Faravelli, T.; Van Geem, K.M. The chemistry of chemical recycling of solid plastic waste via pyrolysis and gasification: State-of-the-art, challenges, and future directions. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 2021, 84, 100901. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Di Bartolo, A.; Infurna, G.; Dintcheva, N.T. A Review of Bioplastics and Their Adoption in the Circular Economy. Polymers 2021, 13, 1229. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Ioannidou, S.M.; Pateraki, C.; Ladakis, D.; Papapostolou, H.; Tsakona, M.; Vlysidis, A.; Kookos, I.K.; Koutinas, A. Sustainable production of bio-based chemicals and polymers via integrated biomass refining and bioprocessing in a circular bioeconomy context. Bioresour. Technol. 2020, 307, 123093. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Beeftink, M.R.V.; Vendrik, J.; Bergsma, G. PLA Sorting for Recycling; CE Delft: Delft, The Netherlands, 2021.
- Morro, A.; Catalina, F.; Sanchez-León, E.; Abrusci, C. Photodegradation and Biodegradation Under Thermophile Conditions of Mulching Films Based on Poly(Butylene Adipate-co-Terephthalate) and Its Blend with Poly(Lactic Acid). J. Polym. Environ. 2019, 27, 352-363. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Ruggero, F.; Carretti, E.; Gori, R.; Lotti, T.; Lubello, C. Monitoring of degradation of starch-based biopolymer film under different composting conditions, using TGA, FTIR and SEM analysis. Chemosphere 2020, 246, 125770. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Zumstein, M.T.; Schintlmeister, A.; Nelson, T.F.; Baumgartner, R.; Woebken, D.; Wagner, M.; Kohler, H.-P.E.; McNeill, K.; Sander, M. Biodegradation of synthetic polymers in soils: Tracking carbon into CO 2 and microbial biomass. Sci. Adv. 2018, 4, eaas9024. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Cucina, M.; De Nisi, P.; Trombino, L.; Tambone, F.; Adani, F. Degradation of bioplastics in organic waste by mesophilic anaerobic digestion, composting and soil incubation. Waste Manag. 2021, 134, 67-77. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Zain, A.H.M.; Ab Wahab, M.K.; Ismail, H. Biodegradation Behaviour of Thermoplastic Starch: The Roles of Carboxylic Acids on Cassava Starch. J. Polym. Environ. 2018, 26, 691-700. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Kakadellis, S.; Harris, Z.M. Don't scrap the waste: The need for broader system boundaries in bioplastic food packaging life-cycle assessment-A critical review. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 274, 122831. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Gioia, C.; Giacobazzi, G.; Vannini, M.; Totaro, G.; Sisti, L.; Colonna, M.; Marchese, P.; Celli, A. End of Life of Biodegradable Plastics: Composting versus Re/Upcycling. ChemSusChem 2021, 14, 4167-4175. [CrossRef] [PubMed] open in new tab
- McKeown, P.; Jones, M.D. The Chemical Recycling of PLA: A Review. Sustain. Chem. 2020, 1, 1-22. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Iñiguez-Franco, F.; Auras, R.; Dolan, K.; Selke, S.; Holmes, D.; Rubino, M.; Soto-Valdez, H. Chemical recycling of poly(lactic acid) by water-ethanol solutions. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2018, 149, 28-38. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Badia, J.; Ribes-Greus, A. Mechanical recycling of polylactide, upgrading trends and combination of valorization techniques. Eur. Polym. J. 2016, 84, 22-39. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- de Andrade, M.F.C.; Souza, P.M.S.; Cavalett, O.; Morales, A.R. Life Cycle Assessment of Poly(Lactic Acid) (PLA): Comparison Between Chemical Recycling, Mechanical Recycling and Composting. J. Polym. Environ. 2016, 24, 372-384. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Piemonte, V.; Sabatini, S.; Gironi, F. Chemical Recycling of PLA: A Great Opportunity Towards the Sustainable Development? J. Polym. Environ. 2013, 21, 640-647. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- World Economic Forum. The New Plastics Economy: Rethinking the Future of Plastics. 2016. Available online: http://www3 .weforum.org/docs/WEF_The_New_Plastics_Economy.pdf (accessed on 15 January 2022). open in new tab
- Aryan, V.; Maga, D.; Majgaonkar, P.; Hanich, R. Valorisation of polylactic acid (PLA) waste: A comparative life cycle assessment of various solvent-based chemical recycling technologies. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2021, 172, 105670. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Ilyas, R.A.; Zuhri, M.Y.M.; Norrrahim, M.N.F.; Misenan, M.S.M.; Jenol, M.A.; Samsudin, S.A.; Nurazzi, N.M.; Asyraf, M.R.M.; Supian, A.B.M.; Bangar, S.P.; et al. Natural Fiber-Reinforced Polycaprolactone Green and Hybrid Biocomposites for Various Advanced Applications. Polymers 2022, 14, 182. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Thakur, M.; Majid, I.; Hussain, S.; Nanda, V. Poly(ε-caprolactone): A potential polymer for biodegradable food packaging applications. Packag. Technol. Sci. 2021, 34, 449-461. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Jian, J.; Xiangbin, Z.; Xianbo, H. An overview on synthesis, properties and applications of poly(butylene-adipate-co-terephthalate)- PBAT. Adv. Ind. Eng. Polym. Res. 2020, 3, 19-26. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Shahlari, M.; Lee, S. Biodegradable polymer/clay nanocomposites based on poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) and poly(lactic acid). In Proceedings of the AIChE Annual Meeting, Conference Proceedings, Philadelphia, PA, USA, 20 November 2008; pp. 16-21.
- Raquez, J.M.; Nabar, Y.; Narayan, R.; Dubois, P. Novel High-Performance Talc/Poly[(butylene adipate)-co-terephthalate] Hybrid Materials. Macromol. Mater. Eng. 2008, 293, 310-320. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Zhou, X.; Mohanty, A.; Misra, M. A New Biodegradable Injection Moulded Bioplastic from Modified Soy Meal and Poly (butylene adipate-co-terephthalate): Effect of Plasticizer and Denaturant. J. Polym. Environ. 2013, 21, 615-622. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Li, X.; Ai, X.; Pan, H.; Yang, J.; Gao, G.; Zhang, H.; Yang, H.; Dong, L. The morphological, mechanical, rheological, and thermal properties of PLA/PBAT blown films with chain extender. Polym. Adv. Technol. 2018, 29, 1706-1717. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Someya, Y.; Sugahara, Y.; Shibata, M. Nanocomposites based on poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) and montmorillonite. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2005, 95, 386-392. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Vroman, I.; Tighzert, L. Biodegradable Polymers. Materials 2009, 2, 307-344. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Lule, Z.C.; Kim, J. Properties of economical and eco-friendly polybutylene adipate terephthalate composites loaded with surface treated coffee husk. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2021, 140, 106154. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Phetwarotai, W.; Phusunti, N.; Aht-Ong, D. Preparation and Characteristics of Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate)/Polylactide Blend Films via Synergistic Efficiency of Plasticization and Compatibilization. Chin. J. Polym. Sci. 2019, 37, 68-78. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Xing, Q.; Buono, P.; Ruch, D.; Dubois, P.; Wu, L.; Wang, W.-J. Biodegradable UV-Blocking Films through Core-Shell Lignin- Melanin Nanoparticles in Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate). ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 2019, 7, 4147-4157. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Bordes, P.; Pollet, E.; Averous, L. Nano-biocomposites: Biodegradable polyester/nanoclay systems. Prog. Polym. Sci. 2009, 34, 125-155. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Zhang, X.; Ma, P.; Zhang, Y. Structure and properties of surface-acetylated cellulose nanocrystal/poly(butylene adipate-co- terephthalate) composites. Polym. Bull. 2016, 73, 2073-2085. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Schneider, J.; Manjure, S.; Narayan, R. Reactive modification and compatibilization of poly(lactide) and poly(butylene adipate-co- terephthalate) blends with epoxy functionalized-poly(lactide) for blown film applications. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2016, 133, 1-9. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Mallegni, N.; Phuong, T.V.; Coltelli, M.-B.; Cinelli, P.; Lazzeri, A. Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) Based Tear Resistant and Biodegradable Flexible Films by Blown Film Extrusion. Materials 2018, 11, 148. [CrossRef] [PubMed] open in new tab
- Sangroniz, A.; Sangroniz, L.; Aranburu, N.; Fernández, M.; Santamaria, A.; Iriarte, M.; Etxeberria, A. Blends of biodegradable poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) with poly(hydroxi amino ether) for packaging applications: Miscibility, rheology and transport properties. Eur. Polym. J. 2018, 105, 348-358. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Soulenthone, P.; Tachibana, Y.; Muroi, F.; Suzuki, M.; Ishii, N.; Ohta, Y.; Kasuya, K.-I. Characterization of a mesophilic actinobacte- ria that degrades poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate). Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2020, 181, 109335. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Nagarajan, V.; Misra, M.; Mohanty, A.K. New engineered biocomposites from poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV)/poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) blends and switchgrass: Fabrication and performance evaluation. Ind. Crop. Prod. 2013, 42, 461-468. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Ferreira, F.V.; Cividanes, L.S.; Gouveia, R.F.; Lona, L.M. An overview on properties and applications of poly(butylene adipate-co- terephthalate)-PBAT based composites. Polym. Eng. Sci. 2019, 59, E7-E15. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Gross, R.A.; Kalra, B. Biodegradable Polymers for the Environment. Science 2002, 297, 803-807. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Li, J.; Lai, L.; Wu, L.; Severtson, S.J.; Wang, W.-J. Enhancement of Water Vapor Barrier Properties of Biodegradable Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) Films with Highly Oriented Organomontmorillonite. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 2018, 6, 6654-6662. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Peng, W.; Wang, Z.; Shu, Y.; Lü, F.; Zhang, H.; Shao, L.; He, P. Fate of a biobased polymer via high-solid anaerobic co-digestion with food waste and following aerobic treatment: Insights on changes of polymer physicochemical properties and the role of microbial and fungal communities. Bioresour. Technol. 2022, 343, 126079. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Kanwal, A.; Zhang, M.; Sharaf, F.; Li, C. Enzymatic degradation of poly (butylene adipate co-terephthalate) (PBAT) copolymer using lipase B from Candida antarctica (CALB) and effect of PBAT on plant growth. Polym. Bull. 2022, 79, 9059-9073. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- La Mantia, F.P.; Botta, L.; Mistretta, M.C.; Di Fiore, A.; Titone, V. Recycling of a Biodegradable Polymer Blend. Polymers 2020, 12, 2297. [CrossRef] [PubMed] open in new tab
- Oliveira, T.A.; Oliveira, R.R.; Barbosa, R.; Azevedo, J.B.; Alves, T.S. Effect of reprocessing cycles on the degradation of PP/PBAT- thermoplastic starch blends. Carbohydr. Polym. 2017, 168, 52-60. [CrossRef] [PubMed] open in new tab
- Oluwasina, O.O.; Olaleye, F.K.; Olusegun, S.J.; Oluwasina, O.O.; Mohallem, N.D. Influence of oxidized starch on physicomechani- cal, thermal properties, and atomic force micrographs of cassava starch bioplastic film. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2019, 135, 282-293. [CrossRef] [PubMed] open in new tab
- Ilyas, R.A.; Sapuan, S.M.; Ishak, M.R.; Zainudin, E.S. Development and characterization of sugar palm nanocrystalline cellulose reinforced sugar palm starch bionanocomposites. Carbohydr. Polym. 2018, 202, 186-202. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Ilyas, R.; Sapuan, S.M.; Ibrahim, R.; Abral, H.; Ishak, M.R.; Zainudin, E.S.; Atiqah, A.; Atikah, M.S.N.; Syafri, E.; Asrofi, M.; et al. Thermal, Biodegradability and Water Barrier Properties of Bio-Nanocomposites Based on Plasticised Sugar Palm Starch and Nanofibrillated Celluloses from Sugar Palm Fibres. J. Biobased Mater. Bioenergy 2019, 14, 234-248. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 7696 open in new tab
- Anugrahwidya, R.; Armynah, B.; Tahir, D. Bioplastics Starch-Based with Additional Fiber and Nanoparticle: Characteristics and Biodegradation Performance: A Review. J. Polym. Environ. 2021, 29, 3459-3476. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Khan, B.; Niazi, M.B.K.; Samin, G.; Jahan, Z. Thermoplastic Starch: A Possible Biodegradable Food Packaging Material-A Review. J. Food Process Eng. 2016, 40, e12447. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Prabhu, T.N.; Prashantha, K. A review on present status and future challenges of starch based polymer films and their composites in food packaging applications. Polym. Compos. 2016, 39, 2499-2522. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Bertoft, E. Understanding Starch Structure: Recent Progress. Agronomy 2017, 7, 56. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Wang, S.; Li, C.; Copeland, L.; Niu, Q.; Wang, S. Starch Retrogradation: A Comprehensive Review. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2015, 14, 568-585. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Sanyang, M.L.; Sapuan, S.M.; Jawaid, M.; Ishak, M.R.; Sahari, J. Effect of Plasticizer Type and Concentration on Dynamic Mechanical Properties of Sugar Palm Starch-Based Films. Int. J. Polym. Anal. Charact. 2015, 20, 627-636. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Ren, J.; Zhang, W.; Lou, F.; Wang, Y.; Guo, W. Characteristics of starch-based films produced using glycerol and 1-butyl-3- methylimidazolium chloride as combined plasticizers. Starch-Stärke 2016, 69, 1600161. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Ibrahim, M.I.J.; Sapuan, S.M.; Zainudin, E.S.; Zuhri, M.Y.M. Preparation and characterization of cornhusk/sugar palm fiber reinforced Cornstarch-based hybrid composites. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 2019, 9, 200-211. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Encalada, K.; Aldás, M.B.; Proaño, E.; Valle, V. An overview of starch-based biopolymers and their biodegradability. Ciencia e Ingeniería 2018, 39, 245-258.
- Franssen, M.C.R.; Boeriu, C.G. Chemically Modified Starch; open in new tab
- Allyl-and Epoxy-Starch Derivatives: Their Synthesis and Characteri- zation. Starch Polym. 2014, 145-184. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Masina, N.; Choonara, Y.E.; Kumar, P.; du Toit, L.C.; Govender, M.; Indermun, S.; Pillay, V. A review of the chemical modification techniques of starch. Carbohydr. Polym. 2017, 157, 1226-1236. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Haq, F.; Yu, H.; Wang, L.; Teng, L.; Haroon, M.; Khan, R.U.; Mehmood, S.; Amin, B.U.; Ullah, R.S.; Khan, A.; et al. Advances in chemical modifications of starches and their applications. Carbohydr. Res. 2019, 476, 12-35. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Bulatović, V.O.; Mandić, V.; Grgić, D.K.; Ivančić, A. Biodegradable Polymer Blends Based on Thermoplastic Starch. J. Polym. Environ. 2021, 29, 492-508. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Zhao, X.; Cornish, K.; Vodovotz, Y. Narrowing the Gap for Bioplastic Use in Food Packaging: An Update. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2020, 54, 4712-4732. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Jumaidin, R.; Khiruddin, M.A.A.; Saidi, Z.A.S.; Salit, M.S.; Ilyas, R.A. Effect of cogon grass fibre on the thermal, mechanical and biodegradation properties of thermoplastic cassava starch biocomposite. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2020, 146, 746-755. [CrossRef] [PubMed] open in new tab
- Jumaidin, R.; Sapuan, S.M.; Jawaid, M.; Ishak, M.R.; Sahari, J. Effect of seaweed on mechanical, thermal, and biodegradation properties of thermoplastic sugar palm starch/agar composites. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2017, 99, 265-273. [CrossRef] [PubMed] open in new tab
- Re, G.L.; Morreale, M.; Scaffaro, R.; La Mantia, F.P. Biodegradation paths of Mater-Bi ® /kenaf biodegradable composites. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2013, 129, 3198-3208. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Fourati, Y.; Tarrés, Q.; Mutjé, P.; Boufi, S. PBAT/thermoplastic starch blends: Effect of compatibilizers on the rheological, mechanical and morphological properties. Carbohydr. Polym. 2018, 199, 51-57. [CrossRef] [PubMed] open in new tab
- Ogunsona, E.; Ojogbo, E.; Mekonnen, T. Advanced material applications of starch and its derivatives. Eur. Polym. J. 2018, 108, 570-581. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Wang, X.; Huang, L.; Zhang, C.; Deng, Y.; Xie, P.; Liu, L.; Cheng, J. Research advances in chemical modifications of starch for hydrophobicity and its applications: A review. Carbohydr. Polym. 2020, 240, 116292. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Abera, G.; Woldeyes, B.; Demash, H.D.; Miyake, G. The effect of plasticizers on thermoplastic starch films developed from the indigenous Ethiopian tuber crop Anchote (Coccinia abyssinica) starch. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2020, 155, 581-587. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Li, X.; Qiu, C.; Ji, N.; Sun, C.; Xiong, L.; Sun, Q. Mechanical, barrier and morphological properties of starch nanocrystals-reinforced pea starch films. Carbohydr. Polym. 2015, 121, 155-162. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Ren, L.; Yan, X.; Zhou, J.; Tong, J.; Su, X. Influence of chitosan concentration on mechanical and barrier properties of corn starch/chitosan films. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2017, 105, 1636-1643. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Priya, B.; Gupta, V.K.; Pathania, D.; Singha, A.S. Synthesis, characterization and antibacterial activity of biodegradable starch/PVA composite films reinforced with cellulosic fibre. Carbohydr. Polym. 2014, 109, 171-179. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Cano, A.; Fortunati, E.; Cháfer, M.; Kenny, J.; Chiralt, A.; González-Martínez, C. Properties and ageing behaviour of pea starch films as affected by blend with poly(vinyl alcohol). Food Hydrocoll. 2015, 48, 84-93. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Salazar-Sánchez, M.D.R.; Campo-Erazo, S.D.; Villada-Castillo, H.S.; Solanilla-Duque, J.F. Structural changes of cassava starch and polylactic acid films submitted to biodegradation process. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2019, 129, 442-447. [CrossRef] [PubMed] open in new tab
- Palai, B.; Mohanty, S.; Nayak, S.K. A Comparison on Biodegradation Behaviour of Polylactic Acid (PLA) Based Blown Films by Incorporating Thermoplasticized Starch (TPS) and Poly (Butylene Succinate-co-Adipate) (PBSA) Biopolymer in Soil. J. Polym. Environ. 2021, 29, 2772-2788. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Sanyang, M.; Sapuan, S.; Jawaid, M.; Ishak, M.; Sahari, J. Development and characterization of sugar palm starch and poly(lactic acid) bilayer films. Carbohydr. Polym. 2016, 146, 36-45. [CrossRef] [PubMed] open in new tab
- Lv, S.; Zhang, Y.; Gu, J.; Tan, H. Biodegradation behavior and modelling of soil burial effect on degradation rate of PLA blended with starch and wood flour. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces 2017, 159, 800-808. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Magalhães, N.F.; Andrade, C.T.; De Macromoléculas, I.; Eloisa, P. Properties of Melt-processed Poly (hydroxybutyrate-co- hydroxyvalerate)/starch 1: 1 Blend Nanocomposites. Polímeros 2013, 23, 366-372. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Ferreira, D.C.; Molina, G.; Pelissari, F.M. Biodegradable trays based on cassava starch blended with agroindustrial residues. Compos. Part B Eng. 2020, 183, 107682. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Ibáñez-García, A.; Martínez-García, A.; Ferrándiz-Bou, S. Recyclability Analysis of Starch Thermoplastic/Almond Shell Biocom- posite. Polymers 2021, 13, 1159. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Lopez, J.P.; Girones, J.; Mendez, J.A.; Puig, J.; Pelach, M.A. Recycling Ability of Biodegradable Matrices and Their Cellulose- Reinforced Composites in a Plastic Recycling Stream. J. Polym. Environ. 2012, 20, 96-103. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Ristić, I.S.; Tanasić, L.; Nikolic, L.B.; Cakić, S.M.; Ilić, O.Z.; Radičević, R.; Budinski-Simendić, J.K. The Properties of Poly(l-Lactide) Prepared by Different Synthesis Procedure. J. Polym. Environ. 2011, 19, 419-430. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Atiwesh, G.; Mikhael, A.; Parrish, C.C.; Banoub, J.; Le, T.-A.T. Environmental impact of bioplastic use: A review. Heliyon 2021, 7, e07918. [CrossRef] [PubMed] open in new tab
- Nampoothiri, K.M.; Nair, N.R.; John, R.P. An overview of the recent developments in polylactide (PLA) research. Bioresour. Technol. 2010, 101, 8493-8501. [CrossRef] [PubMed] open in new tab
- Hubbe, M.A.; Lavoine, N.; Lucia, L.A.; Dou, C. Formulating bioplastic composites for biodegradability, recycling, and perfor- mance: A Review. Bioresources 2020, 16, 2021-2083. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Garlotta, D. A Literature Review of Poly(Lactic Acid). J. Polym. Environ. 2002, 9, 63-84. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Ghomi, E.R.; Khosravi, F.; Ardahaei, A.S.; Dai, Y.; Neisiany, R.E.; Foroughi, F.; Wu, M.; Das, O.; Ramakrishna, S. The Life Cycle Assessment for Polylactic Acid (PLA) to Make It a Low-Carbon Material. Polymers 2021, 13, 1854. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Farah, S.; Anderson, D.G.; Langer, R. Physical and mechanical properties of PLA, and their functions in widespread applications- A comprehensive review. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2016, 107, 367-392. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Palmay, P.; Mora, M.; Barzallo, D.; Bruno, J.C. Determination of Thermodynamic Parameters of Polylactic Acid by Thermo- gravimetry under Pyrolysis Conditions. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10192. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Chrysafi, I.; Ainali, N.M.; Bikiaris, D.N. Thermal Degradation Mechanism and Decomposition Kinetic Studies of Poly(Lactic Acid) and Its Copolymers with Poly(Hexylene Succinate). Polymers 2021, 13, 1365. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Kumar, A.; Jyske, T.; Möttönen, V. Properties of Injection Molded Biocomposites Reinforced with Wood Particles of Short-Rotation Aspen and Willow. Polymers 2020, 12, 257. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Nofar, M.; Sacligil, D.; Carreau, P.J.; Kamal, M.R.; Heuzey, M.-C. Poly (lactic acid) blends: Processing, properties and applications. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2019, 125, 307-360. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Zou, H.; Yi, C.; Wang, L.; Liu, H.; Xu, W. Thermal degradation of poly(lactic acid) measured by thermogravimetry coupled to Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 2009, 97, 929-935. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Zong, X.-H.; Wang, Z.-G.; Hsiao, B.S.; Chu, B.; Zhou, J.J.; Jamiolkowski, D.D.; Muse, E.; Dormier, E. Structure and Morphology Changes in Absorbable Poly(glycolide) and Poly(glycolide-co-lactide) during in Vitro Degradation. Macromolecules 1999, 32, 8107-8114. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Reddy, C.; Ghai, R.; Rashmi; open in new tab
- Kalia, V. Polyhydroxyalkanoates: An overview. Bioresour. Technol. 2003, 87, 137-146. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Jiang, L.; Wolcott, M.P.; Zhang, J. Study of Biodegradable Polylactide/Poly (butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) Blends. Biomacro- molecules 2006, 7, 199-207. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Deng, Y.; Yu, C.; Wongwiwattana, P.; Thomas, N.L. Optimising Ductility of Poly(Lactic Acid)/Poly(Butylene Adipate-co- Terephthalate) Blends Through Co-continuous Phase Morphology. J. Polym. Environ. 2018, 26, 3802-3816. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Nofar, M.; Tabatabaei, A.; Sojoudiasli, H.; Park, C.; Carreau, P.; Heuzey, M.-C.; Kamal, M. Mechanical and bead foaming behavior of PLA-PBAT and PLA-PBSA blends with different morphologies. Eur. Polym. J. 2017, 90, 231-244. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Carrasco, F.; Pérez, O.S.; Maspoch, M.L. Kinetics of the Thermal Degradation of Poly(lactic acid) and Polyamide Bioblends. Polymers 2021, 13, 3996. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Itävaara, M.; Karjomaa, S.; Selin, J.-F. Biodegradation of polylactide in aerobic and anaerobic thermophilic conditions. Chemosphere 2002, 46, 879-885. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Brdlík, P.; Borůvka, M.; Běhálek, L.; Lenfeld, P. Biodegradation of Poly(lactic acid) Biocomposites under Controlled Composting Conditions and Freshwater Biotope. Polymers 2021, 13, 594. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Bandini, F.; Taskin, E.; Vaccari, F.; Soldano, M.; Piccinini, S.; Frache, A.; Remelli, S.; Menta, C.; Cocconcelli, P.S.; Puglisi, E. Anaerobic digestion and aerobic composting of rigid biopolymers in bio-waste treatment: Fate and effects on the final compost. Bioresour. Technol. 2022, 351, 126934. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Song, X.; Zhang, X.; Wang, H.; Liu, F.; Yu, S.; Liu, S. Methanolysis of poly(lactic acid) (PLA) catalyzed by ionic liquids. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2013, 98, 2760-2764. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Song, X.; Wang, H.; Yang, X.; Liu, F.; Yu, S.; Liu, S. Hydrolysis of poly(lactic acid) into calcium lactate using ionic liquid [Bmim][OAc] for chemical recycling. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2014, 110, 65-70. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Song, X.; Bian, Z.; Hui, Y.; Wang, H.; Liu, F.; Yu, S. Zn-Acetate-Containing ionic liquid as highly active catalyst for fast and mild methanolysis of Poly(lactic acid). Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2019, 168, 108937. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- de Andrade, M.F.C.; Fonseca, G.; Morales, A.R.; Mei, L.H.I. Mechanical recycling simulation of polylactide using a chain extender. Adv. Polym. Technol. 2018, 37, 2053-2060. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 7696 open in new tab
- Yarahmadi, N.; Jakubowicz, I.; Enebro, J. Polylactic acid and its blends with petroleum-based resins: Effects of reprocessing and recycling on properties. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2016, 133, 1-9. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Raza, Z.A.; Abid, S.; Banat, I.M. Polyhydroxyalkanoates: Characteristics, production, recent developments and applications. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 2018, 126, 45-56. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Koller, M.J.M. Biodegradable and Biocompatible Polyhydroxy-alkanoates (PHA): Auspicious Microbial Macromolecules for Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Applications. Molecules 2018, 23, 362. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Sharma, V.; Sehgal, R.; Gupta, R. Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA): Properties and Modifications. Polymer 2021, 212, 123161. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Omura, T.; Goto, T.; Maehara, A.; Kimura, S.; Abe, H.; Iwata, T. Thermal degradation behavior of poly[(R)-3-hydroxybutyrate-co- 4-hydroxybutyrate]. open in new tab
- Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2021, 183, 109460. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Dietrich, K.; Dumont, M.-J.; Del Rio, L.F.; Orsat, V. Producing PHAs in the bioeconomy-Towards a sustainable bioplastic. Sustain. Prod. Consum. 2017, 9, 58-70. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Kessler, B.; Weusthuis, R.; Witholt, B.; Eggink, G. Production of Microbial Polyesters: Fermentation and Downstream Processes. Biopolyesters 2001, 71, 159-182. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Ahmed, S.; Kanchi, S.; Kumar, G. Handbook of Biopolymers; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2018. open in new tab
- Pession, A.; Bosco, F. Produzione di Poliidrossialcanoati da Biomassa Lignocellulosica di Scarto; Politecnico di Torino: Turin, Italy, 2019.
- Bugnicourt, E.; Cinelli, P.; Lazzeri, A.; Alvarez, V. Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA): Review of synthesis, characteristics, processing and potential applications in packaging. Express Polym. Lett. 2014, 8, 791-808. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Zhang, M.; Thomas, N.L. Preparation and properties of polyhydroxybutyrate blended with different types of starch. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2010, 116, 688-694. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Kumar, V.; Sehgal, R.; Gupta, R. Blends and composites of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) and their applications. Eur. Polym. J. 2021, 161, 110824. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Crutchik, D.; Franchi, O.; Caminos, L.; Jeison, D.; Belmonte, M.; Pedrouso, A.; del Rio, A.V.; Mosquera-Corral, A.; Campos, J.L. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) Production: A Feasible Economic Option for the Treatment of Sewage Sludge in Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants? Water 2020, 12, 1118. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Wu, C.-S. Preparation and Characterization of Polyhydroxyalkanoate Bioplastic-Based Green Renewable Composites from Rice Husk. J. Polym. Environ. 2014, 22, 384-392. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Chan, C.M.; Vandi, L.-J.; Pratt, S.; Halley, P.; Richardson, D.; Werker, A.; Laycock, B. Insights into the biodegradation of PHA/wood composites: Micro-and macroscopic changes. Sustain. Mater. Technol. 2019, 21, e00099. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Wu, C.-S.; Liao, H.-T.; Cai, Y.-X. Characterisation, biodegradability and application of palm fibre-reinforced polyhydroxyalkanoate composites. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2017, 140, 55-63. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Joyyi, L.; Thirmizir, M.Z.A.; Salim, M.S.; Han, L.; Murugan, P.; Kasuya, K.-I.; Maurer, F.H.; Arifin, M.I.Z.; Sudesh, K. Composite properties and biodegradation of biologically recovered P(3HB-co -3HHx) reinforced with short kenaf fibers. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2017, 137, 100-108. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Scaffaro, R.; Dintcheva, N.T.; Marino, R.; La Mantia, F.P. Processing and Properties of Biopolymer/Polyhydroxyalkanoates Blends. J. Polym. Environ. 2012, 20, 267-272. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Mesquita, P.J.P.; Araújo, R.D.J.; Andrade, D.D.L.A.C.S.; Carvalho, L.H.; Alves, T.S.; Barbosa, R. Evaluation of Biodegradation of PHB/PP-G-MA/Vermiculite Bionanocomposites. Mater. Sci. Forum 2016, 869, 298-302. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Fernandes, M.; Salvador, A.; Alves, M.M.; Vicente, A.A. Factors affecting polyhydroxyalkanoates biodegradation in soil. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2020, 182, 109408. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Meereboer, K.W.; Misra, M.; Mohanty, A.K. Review of recent advances in the biodegradability of polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) bioplastics and their composites. Green Chem. 2020, 22, 5519-5558. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Rivas, L.F.; Casarin, S.A.; Nepomuceno, N.C.; Alencar, M.I.; Agnelli, J.A.; Medeiros, E.S.; Wanderley, A.D.; Oliveira, M.P.; Medeiros, A.M.; Santos, A.S. Reprocessability of PHB in extrusion: ATR-FTIR, tensile tests and thermal studies. Polímeros 2017, 27, 122-128. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Undri, A.; Rosi, L.; Frediani, M.; Frediani, P. Conversion of poly(lactic acid) to lactide via microwave assisted pyrolysis. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 2014, 110, 55-65. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Feng, L.; Feng, S.; Bian, X.; Li, G.; Chen, X. Pyrolysis mechanism of Poly(lactic acid) for giving lactide under the catalysis of tin. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2018, 157, 212-223. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Banu, J.R.; Kannah, R.Y.; Kumar, M.D.; Preethi;
- Kavitha, S.; Gunasekaran, M.; Zhen, G.; Awasthi, M.K.; Kumar, G. Spent coffee grounds based circular bioeconomy: Technoeconomic and commercialization aspects. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2021, 152, 111721. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Lv, S.; Zhang, Y.; Tan, H. Thermal and thermo-oxidative degradation kinetics and characteristics of poly (lactic acid) and its composites. Waste Manag. 2019, 87, 335-344. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Sun, C.; Li, C.; Tan, H.; Zhang, Y. Synergistic effects of wood fiber and polylactic acid during co-pyrolysis using TG-FTIR-MS and Py-GC/MS. Energy Convers. Manag. 2019, 202, 112212. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Saeaung, K.; Phusunti, N.; Phetwarotai, W.; Assabumrungrat, S.; Cheirsilp, B. Catalytic pyrolysis of petroleum-based and biodegradable plastic waste to obtain high-value chemicals. Waste Manag. 2021, 127, 101-111. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Samorì, C.; Parodi, A.; Tagliavini, E.; Galletti, P. Recycling of post-use starch-based plastic bags through pyrolysis to produce sulfonated catalysts and chemicals. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 2021, 155, 105030. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Mamat, M.R.Z.; Ariffin, H.; Hassan, M.A.; Zahari, M.A.K.M. Bio-based production of crotonic acid by pyrolysis of poly(3- hydroxybutyrate) inclusions. J. Clean. Prod. 2014, 83, 463-472. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Ariffin, H.; Nishida, H.; Shirai, Y.; Hassan, M.A. Highly selective transformation of poly[(R)-3-hydroxybutyric acid] into trans-crotonic acid by catalytic thermal degradation. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2010, 95, 1375-1381. [CrossRef] open in new tab
- Disclaimer/Publisher's Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.
- Verified by:
- No verification
seen 139 times
Recommended for you
One More Step Towards a Circular Economy for Thermal Insulation Materials—Development of Composites Highly Filled with Waste Polyurethane (PU) Foam for Potential Use in the Building Industry
- Ł. Kowalczyk,
- J. Korol,
- B. Chmielnicki
- + 3 authors